Biological Classification:-

Biological classification of Plants and Animals was first proposed by Aristotle on the basis of simple morphological characters.Linnaeus later classified all living organisms into two kingdoms:- Plantae and Animalia. R.H.whittaker proposed an elaborate five kingdom classification:- Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The main criteria of the five kingdom classification were 1) Cell structure, 2) Body organization, 3) mode of nutrition, 4) Reproduction and 5) Phylogenetic relationships.

In the five-kingdom classification, bacteria are included in kingdom Monera. Bacteria are cosmopolitan in distribution. bacteria may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in their mode of nutrition.

Kingdom, Protista includes all single-celled Eukaryotes such as:- Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime-moulds, and Protozoans. Protista have defined Nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. They reproduce asexually and sexually. 

 

Members of kingdom Fungi show a great Diversity in structure and habitat. Most fungi are saprophytic in their mode of nutrition. They show asexual and sexual reproduction.

 Ex:- Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Deuteromycetes as the four classes under this kingdom.

The Plantae includes all eukaryotic Chlorophyll-containing organisms. Algae, Bryophytes, pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, and Angiosperms are included in this group 

The heterotrophic eukaryotic, multicellular organisms lacking a cell wall are included in the kingdom Animalia. The mode of nutrition of these organisms is Holozoic. The reproduce mostly by the sexual mode.

Some Acellular organisms like viruses and viroids as well as the lichens are not included in the five-kingdom system of classification

Respiratory System:-

The process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with Co2 produced by the cells is called Breathing, commonly known as Respiration.

The respiratory system consists of the many parts like a Nose, pharynx(throat), larynx (voice box), trachea( windpipe), Bronchi and Lungs.

The Respiratory system has the following function:- 

1) Help in gaseous exchange- intake of oxygen for delivery to body cells and elimination of carbon dioxide produced by the cells.

2)Helps to regulate blood pH.

3)Contains receptors of a sense of smell, Produced vocal sounds(phonation), and excretes the small amount of water and heat.Filter inspired air, 

Digestive System:- 

"The Breakdown of large insoluble of food molecules into the Small soluble molecules to be absorbed into the body cells".

The digestive system includes the Gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the accessory digestive organs. this GI or Alimentary canal is connected from mouth to anus by a tube.Organ of GI tract includes the mouth,
esophagus tube
stomach
the small intestine
the large intestine
most of the pharynx.
The accessory digestive organs include:-
The Teeth
Tounge
Salivary Gland
Liver
Gallbladder and
Pancreas.

Functions of Digestive system:-

 1) Ingestion:- taking food into the mouth

2)Secretion:- Release of water, acid, buffers, enzymes into the lumen of the GI tract.
3)Mixing and Propulsion:- Churning and propulsion of food through the GI tract.
4)Digestion:- The Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
5)Absorption:-passage and assimilation of digested product from GI tract into the blood and lymph.
6)Defection:- The elimination of feces from the GI tract.

Digestive Activities in the GI tract

 In the mouth:- The mouth is formed by the cheeks, hard and soft palates, lips and tongue.

Function:-Secrete Saliva from Salivary glands that softens moistens, and dissolves food and cleanses mouth and teeth.Salivary amylase present in saliva splits starch into smaller fragments.

                :-secrete Lingual lipase from lingual glands.

In Pharynx:- Receives a bolus from the oral cavity and passes it into the Esophagus tube. 

In Esophagus:- Receives a bolus from the pharynx and moves it into the stomach. The requires relaxation of the upper esophagus sphincter and secretion of mucus.

In Stomach:- The stomach has main four regions:-

1) The Cardia :- the superior opening area of the stomach are called Cardia.

2) Fundus:- To the left of the Cardia and rounder portion is called Fundus.

3) Body:- Inferior area and the large central portion is called Body. 

4) pylorus:- The region of the stomach that connects with the duodenum is The Pylorus.

Function of Stomach

1):-Mixes saliva, food and gastric juice to form chyme.

2):- Secretes Gastric juice, which contains HCl ( Secretion of Parietal cells that kills bacteria and denatures protein).

Pepsin( secretion of Cheif cells that begins the digestion of proteins)

Intrinsic factor( secretion of Parietal cells and aids absorption of vitamin B12) 

Gastric lipase( aids digestion of Triglycerides)

3):-Secretes gastrin( from G cells ) into blood which stimulates parietal cells to secrete HCL and Cheif cells to secrete Pepsinogen; contracts lower esophagus sphincter increases motility of the stomach and relaxes Pyloric Sphincter. 

The small intestine:-

Length 2-3 meter and in diameter 1-1.5 inches.

Regions of the small intestine include:-

1) The Duodenum:-C shape 

2) The Jejunum:- coiled shape

3) The Ileum:- Coiled shape

 

Function of the Small intestine:-

1)- Segmentation mix chyme with digestive juices and bring food into contact with the mucous for absorption; peristalsis propels chime through the small intestine.

2)- Completes the digestion of carbohydrates; proteins; and lipids; begins and completes and digestion of nucleic acids. 

3)-Absorbs about 90% of nutrients and water that pass through the digestive system.

The large intestine:-

The large intestine length 1-2 

Regions of the large intestine are the cecum, colon, rectum and anal canal.

Function of the large intestine:-

1) Haustral churning, peristalsis, and mass peristalsis drive the contents of the colon into the rectum.

2) Bacteria in the large intestine convert proteins to amino acids, breakdown amino acids and produce some B vitamins and vitamin k.

3)Absorbing some water, ions, and vitamins.

4) Forming feces.

5)defecating( emptying the rectum)

 

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#Enter-doudoroff pathway

Entner-Doudoroff Pathway

Entner-Doudoroff Pathway is an alternative pathway that catabolizes glucose to pyruvate using a set of enzymes different from those used in either glycolysis or the pentose phosphate pathway. This pathway, first reported by Michael doudoroff and Nathan Entner, occurs only in prokaryotes, mostly in gram-negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Azotobacter, Rhizobium.

                                In the pathway, glucose phosphate is oxidized to 2-keto-3-deoxy-6-phosphogluconic acid (KDPG) which is cleaved by 2-keto-3-deoxyglucose-phosphate aldolase to pyruvate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. The latter is oxidized to pyruvate by glycolytic pathway where in two ATPs are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation. 

This process yields one ATP as well as one NADH and one NADPH for every glucose molecule.

#CAM_Pathway

CAM pathway:-

Crassulacean acid metabolism(CAM) is a photosynthetic adaption in succulent (juicy and tasty) plants. Succulent plants, also known as Fat Plants, are xerophytic plants to arid climates or soil conditions. Succulent plants store water in their leaves and stems.The storage of water often gives succulent plants a swollen or fleshy appearance than other plants, a characteristic known as Succulence. The best-known Succulents are Cacti. these plants open their stomata during the night and close them stomata during the day. Closing stomata during the day helps succulent plants conserve water, and also prevents the Co2 from entering the leaves. During the night, when their stomata are open, these plants take up Co2. Assimilation of Co2 occurs into Malic acid at night which is stored in the vacuole. This mode of carbon fixation is called CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism). 

During the daytime, when the light rxn can supply ATP and NADPH for the Calvin cycle, Co2 is released from the malate for fixation through the Calvin cycle. This cycle differs from the C4 cycle. In C4 plants, the formation of the malic acids in the mesophyll is spatially separated from the Calvin cycle in the bundle sheath. In CAM plants, the two steps occur at separate times, but within the same cell.

Mechanism of CAM Pathway

In CAM pathway, formation of the C4 acids is temporally separated. This mech^ is following some steps which are given below:-

1)- At night, Co2 is captured by PEP carboxylase in the cytosol of mesophyll cell and PEP is carboxylated to oxaloacetate.

2)- The oxaloacetate is reduced to malate which is finally stored in the vacuole.Reduction of oxaloacetate is catalyzed by enzyme NAD+-malate dehydrogenase. 

3)- During the day, the stored malate transported back into the cytosol, where it is decarboxylated by an NADP+-malic enzyme. 

4)- The Co2 just released enters the chloroplast where it is fixed by the Calvin cycle.

"The adaptive advantage of CAM is the reduction of water loss by transpiration, achieved by the stomatal opening during the night".
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Chilling pictures from the early 1900s are the first crime scene photos ever… showing grisly murders as victims lie splayed in trashed rooms with blood ...

C4 Cycle...

There are many photosynthetic cycles but The most important of these photosynthetic adaptations are C4 photosynthetic carbon cycle.(C4 cycle, named because initial CO2 fixation is four carbon acid) 

The C4 cycle was discovered by Hatch and slack in Australia in 1966, so it's sometimes called      The Hatch and Slack Pathway.

The C4 cycle concentrates Co2 at the site of carboxylation, keeping the Co2 conc^ high enough for RuBisCo to bind carbon dioxide rather than oxygen. In this way, C4 cycle has evolved to minimize photorespiration. Plants that have a C4 cycle are called C4 plants. C4 plants include both monocots and dicots, Ex:- the C4 cycle is particularly prominent in Gramineae ( corn, sugarcane), Chenopodiaceae(Atriplex), Cyperaceae( sedges) family. In C4 plants, there are two distinct types of photosynthetic cells:-

1- Bundle sheath cells

2- mesophyll cells

In bundle sheath cells and mesophyll cells, the basic C4 cycle completes in four stages:-

i)- Fixation of Co2 by the carboxylation of PEP(phosphoenolpyruvate) in the mesophyll cells to form a c4 acid ( malate and/or aspartate ).

ii)-Transport of the C4 acids (malate and aspartate) to the bundle sheath cells.

iii)-Decarboxylation of the C4 acids within the bundle sheath cells and generation of Co2, which enters in the C3 cycle.( there are three different types of C4 cycles based on the enzyme which is employed to decarboxylate C4 acids in the bundle sheath.these are NADP+-malic enzyme type, NAD+-malic enzyme type, and PEP carboxykinase type)

iv)- Transport of the C3 acid(pyruvate or alanine) that is formed by the decarboxylation step back to the mesophyll cell.

  

Mechanism of C4 cycle

In the first step, PEP is carboxylated to the C4 acid such as malate and this is the first product of photosynthesis, In contrast to 3-phosphoglycerate in C3 plants. C4 acids are formed in the mesophyll cells and are then transferred, by diffusion, to the bundle sheath, where they are decarboxylated.This generates a high conc^ of Co2 within the bundle sheath.RuBisCo and the majority of the enzymes of the Calvin cycle are confined to the bundle sheath. The co2 conc^ in the bundle sheath is sufficient to suppress the oxygenase activity of RuBisCo.The co2 released is fixed by RuBisCo and converted to Triose phosphate by the Calvin cycle. A C3 compound such as pyruvate returns to the mesophyll cells from the bundle sheath. In mesophyll cells, pyruvate is converted into PEP. This step is ATP dependent. 

 C4 cycle is, therefore, an ATP-driven Co2 enrichment cycle. The cost of concentrating co2 within the bundle sheath cell is 2 ATP per CO2. Thus total energy requirement for fixing CO2 by the combined C4 and Calvin cycle in five ATP( 2 ATP for co2 enrichment and 3 ATP for co2 fixation)

and plus two NADPH per co2 fixed.

In this way, C4 photosynthesis minimizes photorespiration and enhances carbohydrate production.

#Disease

 The corneal pathology depicted by herpes keratitis.(dendritic keratitis) .

#delhidarbar

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